Legal Studies in the U.S.

(The following information is from Association of American Law Schools, http://www.aals.org/members.html ; American Bar Association, http://www.abanet.org ; and Law School Admission Services, http://www.lsac.org/. The British Fulbright Commission also has good information on legal studies in the U.S. here: http://www.fulbright.co.uk/eas/studyus/subjects/law.html).

1. The J.D.

There is no undergraduate law degree in the United States. Admission requirements for law schools are an undergraduate degree, major not specified, and the (LSAT) Law School Admission Test which is held four times each year. Most law schools require that students apply through the Law School Data Assembly Service (LSDAS).

Application forms are included in LSAT test bulletins. Contact Law School Admission Services, http://www.lsac.org/

The course of study lasts 3 years and the degree usually awarded is the J.D. (Juris Doctor). Students should note that admission into a J.D. program is extremely competitive. In order to complete their qualifications, law students must then pass the State Bar Examination in the state where they intend to practice. Foreign Students should bear in mind that an American law degree provides training to practice in America and will not qualify students to practice in other countries.

It is possible for students who already have a degree in law to take a postgraduate degree in law. Please see below.

2. Overview of Post-J.D. Programs

The content and requirements of post-J.D. degrees, such as an LL.M., are created by the law school itself and do not reflect any judgment by the ABA accrediting bodies regarding the quality of the program. Moreover, admission requirements for such programs, particularly with regard to foreign students, vary from school to school.

The Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar has adopted a statement that no post J.D. or other graduate program is a substitute for the J.D. and should not be considered the equivalent of the J.D. for bar admission purposes.

Those interested in post J.D. programs of a law school should contact the school(s) directly. Persons who have not obtained a J.D. from an ABA-approved law school may wish to contact the bar admission authorities in the state(s) in which persons intend to practice for more information on whether graduation from a post-J.D. program will qualify a person to take the bar examination in that state.

3. Graduate Degrees Defined

While an individual law school's degree may differ slightly by name to similar programs elsewhere, most degrees offered through law schools fall into three general categories:

1) Academic masters degrees for nonlawyers, such as:

M.S. Master of Science or Master of Studies
M.P.S. Master of Professional Studies

2) Post-J.D. law degrees for practicing lawyers and/or foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S., such as:

LL.M. Master of Laws
J.M. Juris Master
M.C.L. Master of Comparative Law
M.J. Master of Jurisprudence

3) Research and academic-based doctorate level degrees, such as:

J.S.D. Doctor of Jurisprudence
S.J.D. Doctor of Judicial Science
D.C.L. Doctor of Comparative Law

For questions regarding specific degree descriptions, contact the school directly.

4. A Note to Graduates of Law Schools Located Outside the United States:
Degrees Other Than a J.D. and Bar Admissions

In order to obtain a license to practice law in the United States, all candidates must apply for bar admission through a state board of bar examiners. Although this board is ordinarily an agency of the highest court in the jurisdiction, occasionally the board is connected to the state's bar association. The criteria for eligibility to take the bar examination or to otherwise qualify for bar admission are set by each state, not by the ABA or the Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar.

In order to sit for the bar examination, most states require an applicant to hold a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree from a law school that meets established educational standards. A J.D. earned at an ABA-approved law school meets the educational requirements in every jurisdiction in the United States. For those individuals who have not earned a J.D. degree from an ABA-approved law school, bar admission authorities have developed varying requirements and criteria to ascertain if such individuals meet the minimum educational requirements for bar admission. In most jurisdictions individuals who lack such a J.D. will find that they do not satisfy the minimum educational requirements for bar admission and are ineligible to take the bar exam. In some of the remaining states, graduates of foreign law schools will find that additional schooling such as an LL.M. is required, and a few others recognize with regularity the sufficiency of a specific foreign legal education. A number offer an alternative licensure mechanism known as a Foreign Legal Consultant which is a limited license to practice. And finally, some jurisdictions will allow individuals to be eligible for admission without examination under certain conditions if they have been admitted to the bar in another U.S. jurisdiction.

In the past few years, there has been a large increase in the number of graduates from schools located outside the United States enrolled in advanced degree programs (such as the LL.M.). In fact, roughly half of all the individuals currently enrolled in LL.M. programs are graduates of foreign law schools. Upon graduating, many of these individuals return to their home country without seeking or obtaining bar licensure in the United States. However, an increasing number of these individuals seek to be admitted to a state bar.

Unlike the J.D. degree bestowed by an ABA-approved law school, which carries the indicia that the holder of that degree has completed a course of study imparting standards entitling him or her to engage in the practice of law, advanced degree programs at ABA-approved law schools are not regulated, and thus, not "approved." As a result, such degrees vary in content and rigor. In other words, the American Bar Association does NOT accredit degrees of any kind other than the J.D.

It is the position of the Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar of the American Bar Association that no graduate degree in law (LL.M., M.C.L., S.J.D., etc.) is or should be a substitute for the first professional degree in law (J.D.) and that no graduate degree should substitute for the J.D. in order to meet the legal education requirements for admission to the bar.

As a result of the variance in state bar admission rules, the ABA strongly encourages individuals to contact the state board of bar examiners in the state(s) in which they are interested in being admitted to ascertain its requirements to sit for the bar examination. Contact information and a summary of bar admission requirements for all U.S. jurisdictions is available in the Section's Comprehensive Guide to Bar Admission Requirements publication which is available online at http://www.abanet.org/legaled/baradmissions/bar.html or through the ABA Service Center at 800.285-2221, Product Code: 5290087 (02ED).

5. Bar Admission: Basic Overview

To practice law in the United States, every lawyer must be admitted to a state bar. Standards for admission to state bars are regulated by each state and differ from state to state. In order to be admitted to the bar, most states require that candidates:

- Possess a law degree from an ABA-approved law school;

For initial licensure, competence is ordinarily established by a showing that the applicant holds an acceptable educational credential (with rare exception, a J.D. degree) from a law school that meets educational standards, and by achieving a passing score on the bar examination.

- Pass state examinations that test knowledge of the law, skill in reasoning, and understanding of legal ethics and professional responsibility;

The most common testing configuration consists of a two-day bar examination, one day of which is devoted to the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE), a standardized 200-item test covering six areas (Constitutional Law, Contracts, Criminal Law, Evidence, Real Property, and Torts). The second day of testing is typically comprised of locally crafted essays from a broader range of subject matters; however, in a growing number of states, nationally developed tests, such as the Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) and the Multistate Performance Test (MPT), are used to round out the test.

In addition, almost all jurisdictions require that the applicant present an acceptable score on the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), which is separately administered three times each year.

- Show evidence of fitness to practice law, understanding of legal ethics, and sound character.

In this regard, bar examiners seek background information concerning each applicant that is relevant to the appropriateness of granting a professional credential. Because law is a public profession, and because the degree of harm a lawyer, once licensed, can inflict is substantial, decisions about who should be admitted to practice law are made carefully by bar examining boards.

Lawyers may practice only in the state or states where they are members of the bar in good standing. However, many states will admit a lawyer to its bar if the lawyer has been admitted to the bar of another state and has practiced law actively for a certain number of years. This is known as "motion admission." Courts often grant temporary bar admission to out-of-state lawyers for the duration of a specific case.

Many states have student practice rules that, in conjunction with students' academic programs, admit advanced law students who are under close supervision of an admitted lawyer. A few states require law students to register with the board of examiners before graduation or, in some cases, soon after they are enrolled in law school if they intend to practice in those states. So if you are planning to attend law school, you should check the bar admission requirements for those states in which you may wish to practice after graduation.

Federal courts set their own standards for admission. It is a common requirement for federal district court admission that the lawyer be admitted to the bar in the state in which the federal district is located, or for the applicant to have one good state court admission.

Some state bar associations inquire about the law school admission records of those seeking admission to the bar. You should keep and maintain complete copies of all law school application records throughout the admission cycle and your law school career.

All states accept graduation from an ABA-approved law school as meeting the state's education requirement for eligibility to sit for the bar examination. A number of states have special rules that accept other forms of legal education as sufficient.

Boards of bar examiners in most jurisdictions expect to hear from prospective candidates during the final year of law school. Bar examinations are ordinarily offered at the end of February and July, with considerably more applicants taking the summer test because it falls after graduation from law school.

Some boards offer or require law student registration at an earlier point in law school. This preliminary processing, where available, permits the board to review character and fitness issues in advance.

In order to obtain a license to practice law, almost all law school graduates must apply for bar admission through a state board of bar examiners. Most often this board is an agency of the highest state court in the jurisdiction, but occasionally the board is connected more closely to the state's bar association. The criteria for eligibility to take the bar examination or to otherwise qualify for bar admission are set by each state, not by the ABA or the Council for the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar.

As state-specific information is so important (and so variable) in the lawyer-licensing process, law students should contact the board of bar examiners

http://www.abanet.org/legaled/baradmissions/barcont.html in the jurisdiction(s) in which they are most likely to practice law.

A good source of information regarding bar admission requirements is the latest edition of the ABA's Comprehensive Guide to Bar Admission Requirements , which should be available in any law school library, or is available online at www.abanet.org/legaled or can be ordered through the ABA Service Center at 1.800.285.2221.

6. Distance Education

Educating a student for a Juris Doctor degree is a professional education of a most distinct variety. During a law school education, a student is expected to participate in a learning community to learn, experience, and develop skills and knowledge that will advance the legal system, society, and the student's career. This law school experience involves interaction with faculty and fellow students outside the classroom as well as in class. Students also learn from each other by inquiry and challenge, review, and study groups.

Law schools that are approved by the ABA may not offer a J.D. degree program that is online or done through correspondence study. Students should be aware that studying law by correspondence or other distance education programs will limit the ability to sit for the bar in many states.

7. POST J.D. PROGRAMS BY CATEGORY

(Source: http://www.abanet.org/legaled/postjdprograms/postjdc.html )

Admiralty/Marine Affairs

Tulane University, LL.M.
Washington, University of, LL.M.

Agriculture Law

University of Arkansas-Fayetteville, LL.M.

American and International Legal Practice

Loyola University-Los Angeles

American Law for Foreign Lawyers

Florida State University, LL.M.

Asian and Comparative Law

Washington, University of, LL.M.; Ph.D.

Banking, Corporate, and Finance Law/Financial Services/Securities

Boston University, LL.M.
Chicago-Kent-Illinois Institute of Technology, LL.M.
Fordham University, LL.M.
Georgetown University, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.
Wayne State University, LL.M.
Widener University, LL.M.

Bankruptcy Law

St. John's University, LL.M.

Biotechnology and Genomics

Arizona State University, LL.M.

Business Law

Loyola University-Chicago, L.L.M.; M.J.
San Diego, University of, LL.M.

Business and Taxation

Capital University, LL.M.
Pacific-McGeorge, University of, LL.M.

Child and Family Law

Chicago-Kent College of Law, IIT, LL.M.
Loyola University-Chicago, LL.M.; M.J.

Clinical Legal Education

Temple University, LL.M.

Comparative Law/Comparative Legal Studies/Comparative Jurisprudence/Comparative Legal Thought

Florida, University of, LL.M.
Indiana University-Bloomington, M.C.L.
John Marshall Law School, LL.M.
Louisiana State University, LL.M.
Miami, University of, LL.M.
New York University, M.C.J.
Pennsylvania State University, LL.M.
Samford University, M.C.L.
Tulane University, M.C.L.
Tulsa, University of, LL.M.
Yeshiva University, LL.M.

Criminal Law

Buffalo, State University of NY, Univ. at, LL.M.

Dispute Resolution

George Washington, LL.M.
Missouri-Columbia, University of, LL.M
Oregon, University of (Masters)
Pepperdine University, M.D.R., LL.M.

Education Law

Franklin Pierce Law Center, M.E.L.

Employee Benefits

John Marshall Law School, LL.M.

Energy, Environment/Natural Resources

Denver, University of, LL.M.
George Washington University, LL.M.
Golden Gate University, LL.M.
Houston, University of, LL.M.
Lewis and Clark College, LL.M.
Pace University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Pacific-McGeorge, University of, LL.M.
Tulane University, LL.M.
Utah, University of, LL.M.
Vermont Law School, LL.M.; M.S.E.L.

Entertainment and Media Law

Southwestern University, LL.M.

Estate Planning

Miami, University of, LL.M.
Missouri-Kansas City, University of, J.D./LL.M.

Family Law

Hofstra University School of Law, LL.M.

General or As Approved

Alabama, University of, LL.M.
California-Berkeley, University of , LL.M.; J.S.D.
California-Davis, University of , LL.M.
Cardozo School of Law, LL.M.
Catholic University of America, LL.M.
Chicago, University of, LL.M.; S.J.D.; M.C.L; D.C.L.
Cleveland State University, LL.M.
Columbia University, LL.M.; J.S.D.
Cornell University, LL.M.; J.S.D.
Emory University, LL.M.
George Mason, J.M. (for nonlawyers)
George Washington University, LL.M.
Georgetown University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Georgia, University of, LL.M.
Harvard University, LL.M.
Illinois, University of, LL.M.; J.S.D.
Indiana University-Bloomington, LL.M.
Indiana University-Indianapolis, S.J.D.
Louisiana State University, LL.M.; M.C.L.
Michigan, University of, LL.M.; M.C.L.; S.J.D.
Missouri-Kansas City, University of, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.; J.S.D.
New York University, J.S.D.
Pennsylvania, University of, LL.M.; M.C.L.; S.J.D.
San Diego, University of, LL.M.
Southern Methodist University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Stanford University, J.S.D.; J.S.M
Temple University, LL.M.
Texas, University of, LL.M.
Touro College, LL.M.
Tulane University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Virginia, University of, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Wayne State University, LL.M.
Wisconsin, University of, LL.M.; S.J.D.; M.L.I.
Yale University, LL.M.; J.S.D.

Global Technology

Suffolk University, LL.M.

Government and Public Policy

Pacific-McGeorge, University of, LL.M.

Government Administration and Regulation

Albany Law School of Union University, LL.M.

Health Law

Albany Law School of Union University, LL.M.
DePaul University, LL.M.
Houston, University of, LL.M.
Loyola University-Chicago, LL.M.; S.J.D.; M.J.
Nova Southeastern University, M.H.L.
Quinnipiac University
Saint Louis University, LL.M.
Seton Hall University, LL.M.
Widener University, LL.M.; S.J.D.; M.J.; D.L

Indigenous Law

Arizona, University of, LL.M.
Tulsa, University of, LL.M.

Insurance Law

Connecticut, University of, LL.M.

Intellectual Property/Technology/Information Technology Law

Akron, University of, LL.M.
Albany Law School of Union University, LL.M.
Boston University, LL.M.
Cardozo, School of Law, LL.M.
Chicago-Kent College of Law, LL.M.
DePaul University, LL.M.
Franklin Pierce Law Center, LL.M.
George Mason University, LL.M
George Washington University, LL.M.
Golden Gate University, LL.M.
Houston, University of, LL.M.
John Marshall Law School, LL.M.; M.S.
Santa Clara University, LL.M.
Suffolk University, LL.M.
Thomas M. Cooley Law School, LL.M.
Washington University, LL.M.
Washington, University of, LL.M.

International/International and Comparative Law/Comparative and International Law/International Legal Studies

Albany Law School of Union University, LL.M.
American University, LL.M.
Chicago-Kent-Illinois Institute of Technology, LL.M.
Georgetown University, LL.M.
George Washington University, LL.M.
Golden Gate University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Hofstra University, LL.M.
Iowa, University of, LL.M.
Louisiana State University, LL.M.
Miami, University of, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.
Notre Dame, University of, LL.M.
Pittsburg, University of, J.S.D.
Puerto Rico, University of, LL.M.
Pittsburgh, University of, LL.M.
San Diego, University of, LL.M.
Southern Methodist University, LL.M.
Stetson University, LL.M.
St. Mary's University, LL.M.
Santa Clara University, LL.M.
Tulane University, LL.M.
Willamette University, LL.M.

International Business and Trade Law/Transnational Business Practice

Arizona, University of, LL.M.
Fordham University, LL.M.
John Marshall Law School, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.
Pacific-McGeorge, University of, LL.M.
San Francisco, University of, LL.M.
Stetson University, LL.M.
Suffolk University, LL.M.

International Economic Law

Houston, University of, LL.M.

International Environmental Law

Washington, University of, LL.M.

Intercultural/International Human Rights

Notre Dame, University of, LL.M.; S.J.D.
St. Thomas University, LL.M.

International Taxation

New York University, LL.M.
Regent University, LL.M.
St. Thomas University, J.S.D.

Inter-American Law

Miami, University of, LL.M.

Judicial Process

Virginia, University of, LL.M.

Labor Law/Employment Law

Georgetown University, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.
Wayne State University, LL.M.

Law and Economics

George Mason University, LL.M.

Law and Government/Procurement

American University, LL.M.
George Washington University, LL.M.

Law, Religion, and Culture

Samford University, LL.M.; S.J.D.

Legal Studies

Albany Law School of Union University, LL.M.
Arizona State University, LL.M.
Connecticut, University of , LL.M.
Northwestern University, M.S.

Litigation/Trial Advocacy/Advocacy

Georgetown University, LL.M. (Clinical Fellows)
George Washington University, LL.M.

Military Law

Judge Advocate General's School, LL.M.

Ocean and Coastal Law

Miami, University of, LL.M.

Professional Studies in Law

Touro College, M.P.S.L.

Real Estate/Land Development

John Marshall, LL.M.
Miami, University of, LL.M.

Research

Duke University, S.J.D.
Indiana University-Bloomington, S.J.D.
Northwestern University, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Southern Methodist University, S.J.D.
Washington University, J.S.D.

Securities Regulation

Georgetown University, LL.M.

Sustainable International Development

Washington, University of, LL.M.

Taxation

Alabama, University of, LL.M.
Baltimore, University of, LL.M.
Boston University, LL.M.
Capital University, LL.M.
Case Western Reserve University, LL.M.
Chapman University, LL.M.
Chicago-Kent-Illinois Institute of Technology, LL.M.
Denver, University of, LL.M.
DePaul University, LL.M.
Florida, University of, LL.M.; S.J.D.
Georgetown University, LL.M.
Golden Gate University, LL.M.
Houston, University of, LL.M.
John Marshall Law School, LL.M.
Loyola Marymount University-Los Angeles, LL.M.
Miami, University of, LL.M.
Missouri-Kansas City, University of, LL.M.
New York Law School, LL.M.
New York University, LL.M.
Northwestern University, LL.M.
Pacific-McGeorge, University of, LL.M.
San Diego, University of, LL.M.
Southern Methodist University, LL.M.
Temple University, LL.M.
Thomas M. Cooley Law School, LL.M.
Villanova University, LL.M.
Washington University, LL.M.
Washington, University of, LL.M.
Wayne State University, LL.M.

Trial Advocacy

Temple University, LL.M.

Tribal Policy, Law and Government

Arizona State University, LL.M.

Urban Affairs/Urban Studies

Missouri-Kansas City, University of, LL.M.
Washington University, LL.M.

8. University Rankings

Many students are interested in university and college rankings in order to find the “right” or the “best” university for them. An extremely useful resource is University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign’s “Library Gateway.” At this website, you will find links to many ranking services, along with cautionary notes and a discussion of the ongoing controversy over rankings. http://door.library.uiuc.edu/edx/rankings.htm. The site also has a special list of rankings within the field of law: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/edx/ranklaw.htm.

9. Resources:

Association of American Law Schools, http://www.aals.org/members.html
American Bar Association, http://www.abanet.org
Law School Admission Services: http://www.lsac.org/
Information on rankings and ranking links: http://door.library.uiuc.edu/edx/rankings.htm